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Onesimus was a Guaramante from what is now southern Libya, who had been given to Mather by his parishioners in 1707.

He described the operation to me, and showed me in his arm the scar which it had left upon him and his description of it made it the same that afterwards I found related unto you by your Timonius.’ 2

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Enquiring of my Negro man, Onesimus, who is a pretty intelligent fellow, whether he had ever had the smallpox, he answered, both yes and no and then told me that he had undergone an operation, which had given him something of the smallpox and would forever preserve him from it adding that it was often used among the Guramantese and whoever had the courage to use it was forever free of the fear of contagion. Timonius' communication and therefore, I do assure you, that many months before I met with any intimations of treating the smallpox with the method of inoculation, anywhere in Europe I had from a servant of my own an account of its being practised in Africa. ‘I am willing to confirm to you, in a favourable opinion, of Dr. When this was published in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society it triggered a reply from Cotton Mather, a minister in Boston, Massachusetts. …They that have this inoculation practised upon them are subject to very slight symptoms, some being scarce sensible they are ill or sick: and what is valued by the fair, it never leaves and scars or pits in the face.’ 1 ‘ That although at first the more prudent were very cautious in the use of this practice yet the happy success it has found to have in thousands of subjects for these eight years past, has put it out of all suspicion and doubt since the operation, having been performed on persons of all ages, sexes, and different temperaments…none have been found to die of the smallpox.’ ‘ The writer of this ingenious discourse observes, in the first place, that the Circassians, Georgians, and other Asiatics, have introduced this practice of procuring the smallpox by a sort of inoculation, for about the space of forty years, among the Turks and others at Constantinople.’

In 1714, a letter written by Emanuel Timonius at Constaninople was circulated around Europe and read to the Royal Society by John Woodward. Working backwards in time from the first variolations in Britain and colonial Massachusetts in 1721, it is possible to trace the practice back for at least a century in parts of the Ottoman Empire and Europe. Inoculation in parts of the Ottoman Empire and Europe